Antibodies are glycoproteins produced by B cells that play an essential role in the immune system (Schroeder et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125:S41-S52, 2010). Five classes of antibodies, namely IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA and IgE, are produced in mammals. In humans, four subclasses of IgG (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4) and two subclasses of IgA (IgA1 and IgA2) antibodies are produced. Each antibody is composed of two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains in the monomeric form. These four chains are connected to one another by a combination of covalent and non-covalent bonds, and form a Y-shaped molecule. There are two types of light chains, kappa and lambda, in mammals. Several different types of heavy chains exist that define the class of an antibody. In humans, the μ heavy chain is incorporated in IgM, the delta heavy chain in IgD, the gamma-1 heavy chain in IgG1, the gamma-2 heavy chain in IgG2, the gamma-3 heavy chain in IgG3, the gamma-4 heavy chain in IgG4, the alpha-1 heavy chain in IgA1, the alpha-2 heavy chain in IgA2, and the epsilon heavy chain in IgE. A monomeric form of these antibodies has two antigen binding sites, and thus is divalent for antigen binding. Although IgG, IgD and IgE are exclusively produced as a monomer, IgM is produced as a hexamer, and thus is dodecavalent for antigen binding, in the absence of J chains, and forms a decavalent pentamer when J chains are present (Gilmour et al., Trans. Med. 18:167-174, 2008). IgA forms a tetravalent dimer with a J chain, whereas IgA is a monomer when J chains are absent, although spontaneous formation of dimeric IgA without J chains has been reported (Johansen et al., Scand. J. Immunol. 52:240-248, 2000).
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration had approved thirty-one monoclonal antibodies as human therapeutics by the end of 2011. All of these therapeutic antibodies are IgG antibodies or derivatives thereof. Besides specific antigen binding, IgG antibodies elicit various biological functions mediated by the Fc region (Schroeder et al. supra; Desjarlais et al., Exp. Cell Res. 317:1278-1285, 2011). In humans, cell-bound IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies mediate antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) by binding of the Fc region to Fcγ receptor type III (CD16) expressed on NK cells (Hulett et al., Adv. Immunol. 57:1-127, 1994). Likewise, cell-bound IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies can efficiently trigger complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) by the interaction of the Fc region with complement components (Bindon et al., J. Exp. Med. 168:127-142, 1988).
The Fc region of all four subclasses of human IgG antibodies binds to the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn), which is a heterodimer composed of a transmembrane a chain and β2-microglubulin, in a pH-dependent manner, resulting in rescuing IgG antibodies internalized by pinocytosis from catabolic degradation in lysosomes and allowing their recycling to the circulation (Ghetie et al., Annu Rev. Immunol. 18:739-766, 2000). IgG antibodies therefore exhibit slow clearance from the circulation which results in a long serum half-life, typically 23 days, in humans (Kindt et al., Chapter 4, Kuby Immunology, Sixth Edition, W. H. Freeman & Co., 2006). In addition, the Fc region of IgG antibodies bind to Protein A (except for IgG3) and Protein G, so that purification of IgG antibodies by Protein A or Protein G affinity chromatography is possible (Andrew et al., Unit 2.7, Chapter III, Current Protocols in Immunology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997).
Dimerization of specific molecules on the cell surface can often trigger one or more biological responses. Binding of monoclonal IgG antibodies to PSMA (prostate-specific membrane antigen) proteins on the cell surface increases the rate of PSMA internalization (Liu et al., Cancer Res. 58:4055-4060, 1998). Internalization and down-regulation of a type I transmembrane protein MUC1 is triggered by binding to a mouse IgG1 antibody (Hisatsune et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 388:677-382, 2009). Monoclonal antibodies against c-Met dimerize c-Met proteins on the cell surface and initiate intracellular signals resulting in cell proliferation (Prat et al., J. Cell Sci. 111:237-247, 1998). Likewise, a monoclonal anti-EPO receptor antibody can function as an agonist for cell growth by homodimerization of EPO receptors on the surface (Schneider et al., Blood 89:473-482, 1997). Antibody-mediated dimerization of Death Receptor 5 (DR5), a member of tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) super-family, on the cell surface, however, does not always trigger signal transduction, while multimerization of DR5 proteins by a mixture of mouse monoclonal anti-DR5 IgG antibody and goat anti-mouse IgG polyclonal antibody, for example, induces signal transduction in the cytoplasm and triggers apoptosis (Griffith et al., J. Immunol. 162:2597-2605, 1999).
IgM antibodies exist as pentamers with J chains and hexamers without J chains (Gilmour et al., supra). In contrast to IgG antibodies, which are only capable of dimerizing antigens, IgM can multimerize cell surface proteins due to its decavalent or dodecavalent antigen binding capability. Monoclonal IgM antibodies with specificity for Fas, a member of the TNFR superfamily (Cosman, Stem Cells 12:440-455, 1994), can efficiently induce apoptosis of Fas-expressing cells due to multimerization of Fas proteins on the surface (Yonehara et al., J. Exp. Med. 169:1747-1756, 1989) while anti-Fas IgG antibodies do not unless they are cross-linked (Matsuno et al., J. Rheumatol. 29:1609-1614, 2002). Compared to IgG, IgM exhibits a much shorter circulation half-life, typically 5 days in humans, because of its inability to bind to FcRn (Kindt et al., supra). IgM antibodies are also unable to mediate ADCC due to the lack of binding to CD16. In addition, the lack of binding to Protein A and Protein G by IgM makes it impossible to purify IgM by Protein A and Protein G affinity chromatography, respectively (Gautam et al., Biotechnol. Adv. 29:84-849, 2011).
A variety of structural formats have been utilized in an attempt to generate novel forms of multivalent antibodies. Recent advances in the engineering of multivalent antibodies are summarized in a review paper of Cuesta et al. (Trends Biotech., 28:355-362, 2010). Preferred multivalent IgG antibodies are able to multimerize antigens efficiently on the cell surface. It is also important that the properties mediated by the Fc region of gamma heavy chains, such as ADCC, CDC, opsonization, pH-dependent FcRn binding, and the ability to bind to Protein A and Protein G, are maintained in such multivalent IgG antibodies.
To generate a multivalent IgG antibody, Caron et al. (J. Exp. Med., 176:1191-1195, 1992) introduced a serine-to-cysteine substitution at the fourth position from the carboxyl terminal of human gamma-1 heavy chain in the humanized anti-CD33 IgG1/kappa antibody, HuG1-M195. Such modified HuG1-M195, termed Hd-IgG, was purified and subjected to Ellman's Reagent (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, Ill.) for crosslinking and then blocking of excess sulfhydryl sites. Monomeric HuG1-M195 was eliminated from Hd-IgG by phenyl Sepharose column chromatography. The resultant Hd-IgG showed a dramatic improvement in the ability to internalize CD33 molecules and was more potent than HuG1-M195 at ADCC and CDC.
Miller et al. (J. Immunol., 170:4854-4861, 2003) constructed a tetravalent IgG antibody by duplicating the VH—CH1 region in the heavy chain of the humanized anti-HER2 IgG1 monoclonal antibody, hu4D5. The modified gamma heavy chain was composed of, from the N-terminus to the C-terminus, the VH, CH1, VH, CH1, hinge, CH2 and CH3 regions. One light chain bound to each of the four VH—CH1 regions in the modified IgG, forming a tetravalent hu4D5 antibody (TA-HER2). TA-HER2 was internalized more rapidly than the parental divalent hu4D5 on HER2-expressing cells. Miller et al. (supra) also constructed a tetravalent anti-DR5 IgG antibody, termed TA-DR5, in the same heavy chain format as in TA-HER2. TA-DR5 triggered apoptosis at ˜100-fold lower concentration than the parental divalent anti-DR5 IgG monoclonal antibody.
Rossi et al. (Cancer Res., 68:8384-8392, 2008) reported the construction of a hexavalent anti-CD20 IgG antibody, designated Hex-hA20, using the Dock-and-Lock method. To generate Hex-hA20, which was composed of six Fab and two Fc regions, two components were constructed and separately produced in mammalian cells. First, the anchoring domain of the A-kinase anchoring proteins (AD) was genetically fused to the carboxyl terminus of the heavy chain in the humanized anti-CD20 IgG1 antibody, hA20. This construct was designated CH3-AD2-IgG-hA20. Second, the docking domain of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (DDD) was genetically fused to the carboxyl terminus of the Fab fragment of h20. This construct was designated CH1-DDD2-Fab-hA20. CH3-AD2-IgG-hA20 and CH1-DDD2-Fab-hA20 were purified by Protein A and Protein L affinity chromatography, respectively. Hex-hA20 was obtained by mixing purified CH3-AD2-IgG-hA20 and CH1-DDD2-Fab-hA20 under redox conditions followed by purification with Protein A. Hex-h20 inhibited proliferation of CD20-expressing B lymphoma cells lines without the need for a cross-linking antibody. Hex-h20 retained the ADCC activity of hA20, but lost the CDC activity.
Yoo et al. (J. Biol. Chem., 47:33771-33777, 1999) constructed variant human anti-DNS IgG2 antibodies in which part of the gamma-2 heavy chain was replaced with the corresponding part of the human alpha-1 heavy chain. In the construct termed γγγ-αtp, the 18-amino acid polypeptide present in the C-terminus of the human alpha-1 heavy chain, termed αtp (also called alpha tailpiece), was attached at the C-terminus of the human gamma-2 heavy chain. The γγγ-αtp construct was further modified to generate the following three variant IgG2 antibodies. In αγγ-αtp, the CH1 region of the gamma-2 heavy chain was replaced with the counterpart of the human alpha-1 heavy chain. In ααγ-αtp, the CH1, hinge and CH2 regions were replaced with the counterparts of the human alpha-1 heavy chain. In γαγ-αtp, the hinge and CH2 regions were replaced with the counterparts of the human alpha-1 heavy chain. These constructs were stably expressed in the mouse myeloma cell line Sp2/0 producing J chains. Each of purified γγγ-αtp, αγγ-αtp, ααγ-αtp and γαγ-αtp antibodies was a mixture of monomers, dimers, trimers, tetramers, pentamers and hexamers. The combined percentage of hexamers and pentamers in the mixture was 20% for γγγ-αtp, 25% for αγγ-αtp, 45% for ααγ-αtp, and 32% for γαγ-αtp.
Sorensen et al. (J. Immunol. 156:2858-2865, 1996) generated multivalent antibodies based on a human monoclonal anti-NIP (3-nitro-4-hydroxy-5-iodophenulacetic acid) IgG3 antibody variant in which the first, second and third hinge region are deleted. The gamma-3 heavy chain gene of this variant IgG3 antibody was modified in two locations. First, the 18-amino acid polypeptide present in the C-terminus of the human μ heavy chain, termed μtp (also called μ tailpiece), was attached at the C-terminus of the heavy chain. Second, a leucine residue at position 309 in the CH2 region was changed to a cysteine residue. Such modified monoclonal IgG3 antibody, called IgGL309Cμtp, was expressed in the mouse myeloma cell line J558L producing J chains, and purified using an NIP-Sepharose column. The secretion level was reported to be poorer for IgGL309Cμtp than for the parental IgG3 antibody, and a large fraction of IgGL309Cμtp was retained intracellularly. The size analysis showed that pentamers and hexamers constituted 81% of purified IgGL309Cμtp.
Sorensen et al. (Int. Immunol., 12:19-27, 2000) also modified the same human anti-NIP IgG3 antibody variant as described above by substituting the CH2 and CH3 regions of the gamma-3 heavy chain with the CH3 and CH4 regions, including μtp, of the human μ heavy chain. The heavy chain of such modified IgG3/IgM hybrid molecules, termed IgG-Cμ3-Cμ4, is composed of, from the N-terminus, the anti-NIP VH region, the CH1 and fourth hinge region of the human gamma-3 heavy chain, and the CH3 and CH4 regions, including μtp, of the human μ heavy chain. IgG-Cμ3-Cμ4 was expressed in J558L cells producing J chains and purified using an NIP-Sepharose column. Hexamers and pentamers constituted 14.0% and 66.7%, respectively, in purified IgG-Cμ3-Cμ4. Since IgG-Cμ3-Cμ4 does not have the CH2 and CH3 regions of the human gamma-3 heavy chain, it will lack Fcγ-mediated properties such as ADCC, pH-dependent FcRn binding, and the ability to bind to Protein A and Protein G.
There is a strong need of multimeric IgG antibodies, which are capable of inducing apoptosis, cytostasis and/or intracellular signal transduction by efficient cross-linking of cell surface proteins, such as TNF receptor family members (Hehlgans and Pfeffer, Immunol. 115:1-20, 2005; Mahmood and Shukla, Exp. Cell Res. 316:887-899, 2010), without losing Fcγ-mediated functions, such as ADCC, CDC, opsonization, and long serum half-life. Such multimeric IgG antibodies are expected to be effective for treatment of cancer and other diseases through their unique mechanisms of action.